Basic concepts and stoichiometry
- Matter, atoms, molecules, elements, compounds and Dalton's model
- Laws of chemical combination and atomic and molecular masses
- Moles, molar mass and percentage composition
- Empirical and molecular formulae, balanced chemical equations and stoichiometric calculations
Atomic structure
- Discovery of subatomic particles and development of atomic models
- Evidence leading to the Bohr model and the hydrogen atom
- Transition from the Bohr description to the quantum-mechanical model
Periodicity
- Development of classification and the modern periodic law
- Electronic configurations and positions in the periodic table
- s, p, d and f blocks
- Periodic changes in atomic and chemical properties
Chemical bonding
- Lewis structures, ionic bonding and bond parameters
- VSEPR predictions of shape
- Valence-bond theory and hybridisation
- Molecular-orbital theory, including homonuclear diatomic molecules
- Hydrogen bonding
The d and f blocks
- Positions and electronic configurations of transition elements
- General transition-metal properties and important compounds
- Lanthanoids and actinoids
- Uses of d-block and f-block elements
Coordination compounds
- Werner's theory and coordination terminology
- Naming complexes and recognising isomerism
- Bonding models for coordination compounds and metal carbonyls
- Applications of coordination chemistry
Thermodynamics
- Thermodynamic systems, terminology and state quantities
- Measuring internal-energy and enthalpy changes through calorimetry
- Reaction enthalpies and enthalpies for different processes
- Spontaneity, Gibbs energy and the connection with equilibrium
Equilibrium
- Physical and dynamic chemical equilibria
- Equilibrium constants for homogeneous and heterogeneous systems and their applications
- Connections among K, reaction quotient Q and Gibbs energy
- Effects of changed conditions on equilibrium
- Ionic equilibria, acids, bases, salts and ionisation
- Buffer solutions and solubility equilibria of sparingly soluble salts
Redox reactions
- Oxidation and reduction as classical reactions and as electron transfer
- Assigning oxidation numbers
- Redox balancing and electrode processes
Solutions
- Types of solutions and concentration measures
- Solubility and vapour pressure
- Ideal and non-ideal behaviour
- Colligative properties, molar-mass determination and abnormal molar masses
Electrochemistry
- Electrochemical and galvanic cells
- The Nernst equation and electrolyte conductance
- Electrolysis and electrolytic cells
- Batteries, fuel cells and corrosion
Chemical kinetics
- Reaction rates and the factors that affect them
- Integrated rate equations
- Temperature effects on rate constants
- Collision theory
Organic principles and techniques
- Carbon tetravalence, molecular shapes and structural representations
- Classification and naming of organic compounds
- Isomerism and the principles of reaction mechanisms
- Purification methods
- Qualitative and quantitative organic analysis
Hydrocarbons
- Classification, preparation and reactions of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes
- Aromatic hydrocarbons
- Toxicity and carcinogenicity of relevant hydrocarbons
Haloalkanes and haloarenes
- Classification, naming and the carbon–halogen bond
- Preparation of alkyl and aryl halides
- Physical properties and chemical reactions
- Polyhalogen compounds
Alcohols, phenols and ethers
- Classification, names and functional-group structures
- Preparation, properties and reactions of alcohols and phenols
- Commercially important alcohols
- Structure, preparation and reactions of ethers
Carbonyl compounds and carboxylic acids
- Naming and structure of carbonyl and carboxyl groups
- Preparation, physical properties, reactions and uses of aldehydes and ketones
- Preparation, physical properties, reactions and uses of carboxylic acids
Nitrogen-containing organic compounds
- Amine structure, classification, naming and preparation
- Physical properties and reactions of amines
- Making diazonium salts and understanding their properties and reactions
- Diazonium salts in aromatic synthesis
Biomolecules
- Carbohydrates and proteins
- Enzymes and vitamins
- Nucleic acids and hormones
Put the topics into practice
For each topic, explain the concept, solve a question without notes, then return to it after a gap. Older papers may include material outside the 2026 scope.
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