Diversity in the living world
- Taxonomic ranks, classification and the diversity of organisms
- Five-kingdom classification: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia
- Viruses, viroids and lichens
- Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms
- Features used to classify animals and the major animal groups
Organisation of plants and animals
- Root, stem, leaf, inflorescence, flower, fruit and seed morphology
- Describing a flowering plant using botanical terminology and recognising important plant families
- Plant tissue systems and the anatomy of monocots and dicots
- Organs and organ systems in animals, with the frog as the specified example
Cells and biomolecules
- Cell theory and a comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
- Chemical composition of organisms, primary and secondary metabolites
- Proteins and their levels of structure, polysaccharides and nucleic acids
- Enzymes and their action
- The cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis and their biological significance
Plant physiology
- Evidence and early experiments in photosynthesis, its cellular locations and pigments
- Light reactions, electron transport, ATP and NADPH production and use
- C4 carbon fixation, photorespiration and factors that change photosynthetic rate
- Glycolysis, fermentation, aerobic respiration and the citric-acid cycle
- Respiratory balance sheets and respiratory quotient
- Growth and development, differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation
- Plant growth regulators
Human physiology
- Respiratory organs, breathing mechanics, gas exchange and transport, control of respiration and respiratory disorders
- Blood, lymph, circulatory routes, double circulation, control of heart activity and circulatory disorders
- Excretory organs, nephron functions, urine production and concentration, kidney regulation, micturition and excretory disorders
- Other organs that contribute to excretion
- Movement, muscles, skeleton, joints and related disorders
- Neurons, organisation of the human nervous system and the central nervous system
- Endocrine glands and hormones, hormones of the heart, kidneys and gastrointestinal tract, and mechanisms of hormone action
Reproduction
- Flower structures and events before fertilisation, double fertilisation and development after fertilisation
- Apomixis and polyembryony
- Male and female reproductive systems, gamete formation and the menstrual cycle
- Fertilisation, implantation, pregnancy, embryonic development, childbirth and lactation
- Reproductive-health challenges, population growth, contraception, termination of pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases and infertility
Genetics and evolution
- Mendelian inheritance of one and two genes, sex determination, mutations and genetic disorders
- DNA structure and experiments identifying genetic material, the RNA-world idea
- DNA replication, transcription, the genetic code, translation and gene regulation
- Human Genome Project and DNA fingerprinting
- Origin of life, evolutionary theories and evidence, adaptive radiation and mechanisms of evolution
- Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and human evolution
Biology in human welfare
- Common human diseases, immunity, AIDS, cancer and effects of drug and alcohol abuse
- Microbes used in household foods and industrial production
- Sewage treatment, biogas, biological control and biofertilisers
Biotechnology
- Principles, tools and stages of recombinant-DNA technology
- Applications in agriculture and medicine
- Transgenic animals and ethical questions
Ecology
- Population characteristics, logistic growth and interactions between populations
- Ecosystem organisation, productivity, decomposition and energy transfer
- Ecological pyramids
- Biodiversity and its conservation
Put the topics into practice
For each topic, explain the concept, solve a question without notes, then return to it after a gap. Older papers may include material outside the 2026 scope.
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